Neo-Apollinarianism in William Lane Craig's Christology: A Theological Analysis
Neo-Apollinarianism in William Lane Craig's Christology: A Theological Analysis
J. Neil Daniels
Introduction
The development of Christological doctrine throughout Christian history has been marked by attempts to articulate the relationship between Christ's deity and humanity. Among contemporary theological discussions, William Lane Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism has emerged as a controversial proposal that revisits and modifies ancient Christological formulations. This analysis examines Craig's model in light of traditional orthodoxy, its philosophical underpinnings, and its implications for Christian theology.
Historical Background: Apollinarianism and Chalcedonian Orthodoxy
Apollinarianism emerged in the 4th century through the teachings of Apollinaris of Laodicea, who proposed that Jesus possessed a human body and sensitive soul but lacked a human rational mind (nous), with the divine Logos fulfilling this function instead. This view was officially condemned at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381 for compromising Christ's complete humanity—a theological principle deemed essential for his salvific role. As Wikipedia's article on Apollinarism explains, the council maintained that "what is not assumed cannot be healed," meaning that for Christ to redeem human nature fully, he must possess all aspects of humanity, including a rational mind.
The Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) later established what became the orthodox Christological formula: Christ as one person with two complete natures—true deity and true humanity—united "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation." This delicate balance aimed to preserve both Christ's full deity and humanity while maintaining the unity of his person, creating a theological standard against which subsequent Christological models would be measured.
Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism: Conceptual Framework
William Lane Craig's Neo-Apollinarian model represents a contemporary reformulation of Apollinaris' view, though with significant modifications intended to avoid its heretical implications. As discussed in the Reasonable Faith Podcast, Craig suggests that the divine Logos provides essential properties like rationality, self-consciousness, and volition to Christ's human nature, thereby "completing" rather than replacing it.
Craig presents his model as a "possible model" rather than dogma, positioning it as a philosophically coherent response to challenges from non-Christian perspectives. He draws distinctions between his view and classical Apollinarianism by arguing that Christ does possess a complete human nature, with the Logos functioning as its soul or completing principle. This, he contends, preserves both the full humanity and deity of Christ while offering a more philosophically coherent account of the incarnation.
Theological Assessment: Conformity to Orthodox Parameters
The critical question surrounding Craig's proposal concerns its alignment with Chalcedonian orthodoxy. Several theological issues emerge from this assessment.
The Completeness of Christ's Humanity
Orthodox Christology insists on Christ's complete humanity, including a human mind capable of human cognition, emotion, and volition. Critics of Craig's model, as noted in Reformation 21's analysis, question whether a human nature "completed" by the divine Logos can truly be considered fully human in the orthodox sense. If the Logos provides rationality to Christ's human nature, does this human nature possess human cognition independently of divine input? This question strikes at the heart of whether Craig's model preserves the distinction between Christ's divine and human natures required by Chalcedonian orthodoxy.
The Problem of Divine Immutability
A second concern involves divine immutability, or the doctrine that God's nature does not change. If the Logos assumes the role of completing Christ's human nature by providing human-like properties, does this imply a change in the divine nature? Orthodox theology has traditionally maintained that in the incarnation, the divine nature remains unchanged while uniting with the human nature in the person of Christ. Craig's model potentially introduces complexities regarding how the divine Logos interacts with human properties without compromising divine immutability.
Soteriological Implications
The incarnation's theological significance extends beyond abstract Christological formulations to soteriology, the doctrine of salvation. As ChrististheCure.org observes, Christ's role as mediator between God and humanity requires him to fully represent both parties. If Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism alters the understanding of Christ's human nature, it potentially affects the theological understanding of how Christ's incarnation, life, death, and resurrection accomplish human salvation.
Philosophical Dimensions: Addressing Contemporary Challenges
Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism emerges partly as a response to philosophical objections to traditional incarnational theology, particularly from Islamic and secular critiques. These challenges often center on the logical coherence of claiming that one person can possess two complete natures with seemingly contradictory properties (e.g., omniscience and limited knowledge).
Craig's model attempts to resolve these tensions by suggesting a closer integration between Christ's divine and human aspects through the Logos' completion of human nature. This approach may offer certain philosophical advantages in addressing logical objections to traditional formulations. However, the question remains whether these philosophical benefits outweigh the potential theological costs of departing from established orthodox parameters.
The Contemporary Theological Debate
The reception of Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism within theological circles has been mixed. Some theologians appreciate his attempt to engage seriously with philosophical challenges to traditional Christology, seeing his model as a valuable contribution to ongoing dialogue about how to understand and articulate the incarnation in contemporary contexts.
Others, however, as represented in discussions on platforms like Reformed Arsenal, rightfully express concern that Craig's model, despite its philosophical sophistication, reintroduces elements of a heresy the church explicitly rejected. These critics argue that theological orthodoxy should not be sacrificed for philosophical neatness, particularly when it concerns such a central doctrine as the incarnation.
Practical Significance: Why Christology Matters
This theological debate extends beyond academic discourse to affect core aspects of Christian faith and practice. The manner in which believers understand Christ's person influences how they relate to him in worship, prayer, and spiritual formation. A Christ whose humanity is somehow diminished or qualified may seem more distant from human experience, potentially affecting the believer's sense of Christ's empathy with human struggles and temptations.
Moreover, as highlighted in broader discussions about Christology, how Christians understand the incarnation shapes their view of God's relationship with creation, human nature and dignity, and the ultimate purpose of redemption. Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism, by reconfiguring traditional understandings of Christ's human-divine constitution, necessarily carries implications for these related theological domains.
Conclusion: Evaluating Craig's Contribution
William Lane Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism represents a significant contemporary engagement with ancient Christological questions. While aiming to preserve orthodox affirmations about Christ's full humanity and divinity, it introduces a model that at a minimum potentially blurs the distinction between these natures in ways that raise important theological questions.
The ongoing debate surrounding Craig's proposal demonstrates the continuing vitality of Christological reflection in Christian theology. It reminds us that formulating coherent accounts of Christ's person remains both intellectually challenging and spiritually significant. Whether Craig's Neo-Apollinarianism ultimately proves helpful or problematic for orthodox Christology depends on how it navigates the delicate balance between philosophical coherence and theological fidelity to the church's historic confessions.
In evaluating such proposals, theologians must consider not only philosophical elegance but also consistency with Scripture, two millennia of tradition, and the soteriological implications of Christological models. Craig's contribution, whatever its ultimate assessment, has certainly stimulated renewed attention to these foundational questions and highlighted the ongoing importance of careful Christological reflection.
Postscript: Further Research Directions
Several fruitful avenues for further research emerge from this analysis. First, a more detailed examination of how Craig's model addresses specific philosophical objections to traditional Christology would help clarify its distinctive contributions. Second, comparative analysis with other contemporary Christological proposals might situate Craig's work within broader theological currents. Finally, closer attention to the soteriological implications of Neo-Apollinarianism would help assess its practical significance for Christian faith and practice.
For Further Study
Online Resources
Print Resources
Craig, William Lane, and J. P. Moreland. Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2017.
This foundational text includes Craig’s detailed exposition of his Neo-Apollinarian Christological model, particularly in the section on the incarnation (pp. 597–611). Craig proposes that the divine Logos serves as the rational soul of Jesus, thereby completing the human nature by assuming a human body. This model aims to address philosophical challenges while maintaining alignment with Chalcedonian orthodoxy.
Crisp, Oliver D. Divinity and Humanity: The Incarnation Reconsidered. Current Issues in Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2007.
Crisp critically examines modern Christological models, including those akin to Craig’s Neo-Apollinarianism. He provides a theological framework for evaluating the orthodoxy of such proposals against historical doctrines like Chalcedon, making it pertinent for assessing Craig’s deviations and their implications.
McCall, Thomas H. An Invitation to Analytic Christian Theology. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2015.
McCall explores analytic theology’s approach to Christology, discussing models like Craig’s that engage with philosophical issues in the incarnation. He offers a critical perspective on balancing philosophical coherence with theological orthodoxy, relevant to evaluating Neo-Apollinarianism’s claims.
Pawl, Timothy. In Defense of Conciliar Christology: A Philosophical Essay. Oxford Studies in Analytic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University, 2016.
Pawl defends Chalcedonian Christology using analytic philosophy, addressing challenges to the coherence of the two-natures doctrine. This work is pertinent for comparing Craig’s Neo-Apollinarianism to orthodox standards, particularly regarding the integrity of Christ’s human and divine natures.
Tuggy, Dale. “Craig’s Contradictory Christ.” TheoLogica: An International Journal for Philosophy of Religion and Philosophical Theology 7.2 (2023): 201–228. https://doi.org/10.14428/thl.v7i2.68363.
Tuggy critically analyzes Craig’s Neo-Apollinarian Christology, arguing that it fails to avoid contradictions and align with Chalcedonian orthodoxy or biblical fidelity. This article offers a detailed philosophical assessment of Craig’s model and is a key academic critique.
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